Kyoto was the political capital of Japan for more than 1,000 years – from 794 until 1868, when the government was transferred to Edo (Tokyo). It remains the cultural heart of the Japanese nation, and with more than 2,000 temples and shrines, it is a place of pilgrimage as well as a veritable open-air museum. No fewer than 17 major sites in and around the city have gained UNESCO World Heritage status.

It is in Kyoto, more than anywhere else in Japan, that the old ways of the country's old imperial civilisation are kept alive, both in the arts and in real life. From geisha to kabuki actors, the past is still present in the old capital, and this is also reflected in the physical environment; the city has managed to retain (not least since Kyoto was spared bombardment at the end of WWII) the ambience of old at least in some areas, where temples, shrines, teahouses and old wooden machiya townhouses give the visitor a vivid impression of what traditional Japan must have been like.

While it is true that modernisation has not always been gentle to old Kyoto, as concrete, steel and neon have become dominant features in large parts of the cityscape, on the whole Japan's old capital remains an extremely attractive place. As a meeting place between old and new and also between Japanese and international cultural impulses, Kyoto is a vibrant city with a rich urban culture and an artistic and cultural scene second to none in Japan.

Whether you prefer traditional kabuki theatre or modern avant-garde performance art, you can find it in Kyoto. Moreover, it is a great city for festivals, with a busy all-year programme culminating in the marvellous Gion Matsuri and the beautiful Yamaboko Junko float parade in July.

And if the cultural riches and street-life buzz can be overwhelming, there is always plenty of nature offering relief nearby, whether in the city's gardens and parks or in the lovely mountains and hills surrounding the city.

Nagoya's history goes back 400 years. The city was created in the aftermath of the Battle of Sekigahara. Uniting Japan through his victory at the battle, Tokugawa Ieyasu commenced construction of Nagoya Castle in 1610, and in the years that followed the residents of the former town of Kiyosu moved to the area surrounding the new castle.

Under the leading family of the three Tokugawa clans, Nagoya developed as a centre for culture, manufacture and trade.

With 2.2 million inhabitants, Nagoya is today the fourth-largest city in Japan. One of the country's major transport hubs, situated halfway between east and west along the main transport lines running from Tokyo via Kyoto and Osaka to Hiroshima and further west, Nagoya also has Japan's leading port for international trade as well as its own state-of-the-art airport, half-an-hour from the city centre.

For centuries a centre for porcelain, ceramics and lacquer-ware production, in modern times Nagoya has been among Japan's most important manufacturing and industrial cities. Toyota Motor Corporation, one of the world's leading car makers, was established in Nagoya, and it still runs a technology and industry museum in the city, while the manufacturing of cars has moved out to Toyota City to the east of Nagoya.

Nagoya is not all about industry, transport and trade, however. It has a thriving cultural scene and a vibrant nightlife, and there is a wealth of museums in the city, including some excellent art museums.

In addition, it also has something to offer nature lovers, in particular the Fujimae-higata wetland area near the port, which is Japan's largest stopover site for migratory birds and hence a great site for bird spotting. There are also plenty of green spaces in Nagoya, and the city is working to become even greener.

While Japan's environmental record is poor in many places, Nagoya has initiated a number of comprehensive green projects with the stated ambition of becoming Japan's eco-capital of the future.

Osaka is Japan's third largest city, and it is the heart of the country's largest metropolitan region, which consists of Osaka, Kobe and Kyoto and has a population of around 20 million people.

Osaka, then known as Naniwa, was twice the imperial capital of Japan, in the seventh and eighth centuries, but only for short periods, and the city has throughout its history been more famous for its economic than its political power.

Osaka was historically Japan's commercial capital, and it is still a powerful business centre with a large working population. In fact, the city's population increases with more than a million, from 2.6 to 3.7 million during the day thanks to the vast number of commuters working in the city.

Located at the mouth of the Yodo River on Osaka Bay, Osaka has excellent sea, air and land communications and remains the economic powerhouse of the Kansai region.

While Osaka's history goes back well over 1,000 years, the city is today better known for its future-oriented cityscape, architecture and industry than for its past. A distinctly modern city with a skyscraper-studded skyline and vast underground shopping complexes, Osaka is busy, bustling, commercial, creative, energetic, versatile and friendly.

The city has two main centres, Kita to the north, which is the main business and retail district, and Minima to the south, which includes the main shopping, food and entertainment areas.

Osaka is just as busy after dark as during the daytime. The city's nightlife is legendary, with thousands of bars, restaurants and amusement venues. The most famous of the night spots is the Dotonbori area, a hectic neon jungle along the Dotonbori canal lined with food, drink and entertainment establishments and a giant moving crab billboard at its heart – a symbol of both the area and the city.

Osaka is regarded as the country's gourmet food capital, the culinary heart (or indeed belly) of Japan. It is the place to go whether you want top-notch kaiseki food or more hearty and generous fare like okonomiyaki, the local speciality.

Another local favourite is takoyaki, flavoursome dumplings made of batter and diced octopus. The motto that more than any other sums up Osaka and the mentality of its people is kuidaore, which quite simply means ‘Eat until you drop'.

Effortlessly blending the old and the new, Tokyo is a city that defies definition. Cutting edge technology glitters beside ancient temples, flashing neon lights bathe kimono-clad women, and shining skyscrapers tower above stunning Shinto shrines. Home to over 12 million people (and more than 35 million people if you include the entire metropolis), Tokyo is a city with a history and a heart that captivates every visitor.

The towering business districts swarm with soberly dressed corporate warriors and the demure young secretaries known as ‘office ladies’. The architectural anarchy and sheer crush of humanity assaults the senses. Amid the frenzy of consumerism, brash electronics outlets are crammed next to refined upscale boutiques and hordes of giggling schoolgirls swoon over pop idols and the latest fashions in glitzy emporiums.

History
In 1590, the city was founded as Edo, the capital of the shoguns, the succession of hereditary absolute rulers of Japan and commander of the Japanese army. Following the fall of the shoguns in 1867, the city was renamed Tokyo, the Eastern Capital, heralding its rebirth as a dynamic modern city and the showpiece of a rapidly modernizing country. Despite the catastrophic 1923 earthquake, which killed 140,000 and left a further 1.9 million people homeless, and near obliteration during WWII, Tokyo rose from the ashes.

When to go
Visiting the city is a pleasure at any time, except perhaps the sweltering heat of summer (July and August). While winter in the city is cold and crisp, spring (March to May) is the highlight of the year for many, with the arrival of delicate cherry blossoms inspiring sake-soaked picnics in the city’s parks and avenues. Autumn (September to November) sees the oppressive summer heat give way to balmy days and golden leaves.

But avoid Golden Week (late Apr-May) and New Year (late Dec-early Jan), the two most important festivals in the Shinto calendar, because the city closes down. With festivals celebrated almost every week, however, there will always be something of the old Japan to experience, whatever time of year you visit.